Lindblom, Charles E. 1959. The Science of "Muddling Through." Public Administration Review, 19, 79-88. For further information, the article can be accessed directly by students and faculty using on-campus computers, or accessed from an off campus computer by going through through the Marriott Library's electronic storage systems and browsing the Public Administration Review.
 

Rational-Comprehensive (Root)	Successive Limited Comparisons (Branch) (i.e. "muddling through")
1a. Clarification of values or objectives distinct from and usually prerequisite to empirical analysis of alternative policies.	1b. Selection of value goals and empirical analysis of the needed action are not distinct from one another but are closely intertwined.
2a. Policy-formulation is therefore approached through means-end analysis: First the ends are isolated, then the means to achieve them are sought.	2b. Since means and ends are not distinct, means-end analysis is often inappropriate or limited.
3a. The test of a "good" policy is that it can be shown to be the most appropriate means to desired ends.	3b. The test of a "good" policy is typically that various analysts find themselves directly agreeing on a policy (without their agreeing that it is the most appropriate means to an agreed objective).
4a. analysis is comprehensive; every important relevant factor is taken into account.	4b. analysis is drastically limited: i) important possible outcomes are neglected. ii) Important alternative potential policies are neglected. iii) Important affected values are neglected.
5a. Theory is often heavily relied upon.	5b. A succession of comparisons greatly reduces or eliminates reliance on theory.

"Science" discovers the "Muddling Through" reality.

"Engineering" uses this reality by:
    • Recognizing the incremental nature of complex policy, and realizing that this does not justify sloppy analysis or decision-making.
    • Seeking to enlarge, not close, future options to be used when the situation is better understood. "Don't burn the bridges in front of us."
    • Using experience to learn and adjust, by building into program (1) measures to assess success and problems and (2) points for review and change.

Lindblom wrote more on this matter, for example, 20 years later:
Lindblom, Charles E. 1979. "Still Muddling, Not Yet Through." Public Administration Review, 39: 517-26. For further information, this article too can be accessed directly by students and faculty using on-campus computers, or accessed from an off campus computer.

Lindblom's approach is related to the work of Herbert Simon and his concepts:
    "Satisficing" rather than "optimizing."
    "Bounded rationality:" our attempts to be rational operate primarily within the area of responsibility and/or the point of view of our perspective that shape our (limited) understanding of the situation and world.

An earlier work, building upon WWII experiences and making some connections to leadership is John D. Millett, The Process and Organization of Government Planning (1947, Columbia University). In comparing the experience of the National Resources Planning Board (Depression) with the War Production Board (WWII), he argues that planning is a core responsibility of the chief executive, and not a technical profession to be insulated from the political process.